Are Spanish children drinking enough and healthily? An update of the Liq.in7 cross-sectional survey in children and adolescents / ¿Beben los niños y adolescentes españoles lo suficiente y de forma saludable? Actualización del estudio transversal Liq. in7 en niños y adolescentes

Introduction: insufficient and/or unhealthy total fluid intake (TFI), especially in the early stages of life, may have a negative impact on health. Objective: to assess the current patterns of fluid consumption in children and adolescents in Spain, including drinking occasions and locations (e.g., at home or at school), and to compare TFI with adequate intake (AI) of water from fluids as recommended by the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA). Methodology: a Spanish cross-sectional study was performed assessing TFI from all sources of fluid consumption according to drinking occasions during the day and location, using a validated liquid intake 7-day record (Liq.in7). Data collection occurred between April and May, 2018. A sample of 146 (63 % boys) children (4-9 years old) and adolescents (10-17 years old) was included. Parents reported such information when children were under 16 years. Results: a high proportion of children and adolescents did not meet EFSA-derived reference values for fluid intake (73 % and 72 %, respectively). Forty percent of children and about 50 % of adolescents consumed at least one serving of sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) per day, while about 20 % consumed only one or less servings of water per day. Consumption during the main meals was most important for both children and adolescents (representing 50 % and 54 % of TFI, respectively), and was mainly driven by water (62 %). Consumption at home in children (70 % of TFI) was made of water (47 %). In the same way, at school, water contributed to half intake. However, adolescent girls at school drink more SSBs (41 %) than water (34 %), the former being the most consumed fluid. At other locations, adolescent boys also drink more SSBs (51 %) than either water (29 %) or milk and derivatives (10 %). (AU)

Introducción: la ingesta total de líquidos insuficiente o poco saludable, especialmente en las primeras etapas de la vida, puede tener un impacto negativo sobre la salud. Objetivo: evaluar el patrón actual de consumo de líquidos en niños y adolescentes en España, incluyendo el número de veces y los lugares para beber, y comparar la ingesta total de líquidos con la ingesta adecuada establecida por la Agencia Europea de Seguridad Alimentaria (EFSA). Metodología: estudio transversal que evaluó la ingesta total de líquidos utilizando un registro validado de ingesta de líquidos de 7 días (Liq.in7). Se realizó entre abril y mayo de 2018, incluyendo una muestra de 146 niños de 4 a 9 años y adolescentes de 10 a 17 años españoles (63 % varones). Los padres detallaron dicha información en caso de que los niños fueran menores de 16 años. Resultados: una alta proporción de niños y adolescentes no cumplían con los valores de referencia de la EFSA para la ingesta de líquidos (73 % y 72 %, respectivamente). El 40 % de los niños y aproximadamente el 50 % de los adolescentes consumían al menos una porción (250 ml) de bebidas azucaradas por día, y el 20 % consumían una porción o menos de agua al día. Durante las comidas principales se consumía la mayor cantidad de líquidos tanto en los niños como en los adolescentes (representando el 50 % y el 54 % de la ingesta total de líquidos, respectivamente), principalmente agua (62 %). El consumo de los niños en el hogar (70 % de la ingesta total de líquidos) también consistía principalmente en agua (47 %). Del mismo modo, en la escuela, el agua contribuía a la mitad de la ingesta. Sin embargo, los adolescentes en el instituto bebían más bebidas azucaradas (41 %) que agua (34 %). En otros lugares, los adolescentes varones también bebían más bebidas azucaradas (51 %) que agua (29 %) o leche y derivados (10 %). (AU)

Are Spanish children drinking enough and healthily? An update of the Liq.in7 cross-sectional survey in children and adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Introduction: insufficient and/or unhealthy total fluid intake (TFI), especially in the early stages of life, may have a negative impact on health. Objective: to assess the current patterns of fluid consumption in children and adolescents in Spain, including drinking occasions and locations (e.g., at home or at school), and to compare TFI with adequate intake (AI) of water from fluids as recommended by the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA). Methodology: a Spanish cross-sectional study was performed assessing TFI from all sources of fluid consumption according to drinking occasions during the day and location, using a validated liquid intake 7-day record (Liq.in7). Data collection occurred between April and May, 2018. A sample of 146 (63 % boys) children (4-9 years old) and adolescents (10-17 years old) was included. Parents reported such information when children were under 16 years. Results: a high proportion of children and adolescents did not meet EFSA-derived reference values for fluid intake (73 % and 72 %, respectively). Forty percent of children and about 50 % of adolescents consumed at least one serving of sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) per day, while about 20 % consumed only one or less servings of water per day. Consumption during the main meals was most important for both children and adolescents (representing 50 % and 54 % of TFI, respectively), and was mainly driven by water (62 %). Consumption at home in children (70 % of TFI) was made of water (47 %). In the same way, at school, water contributed to half intake. However, adolescent girls at school drink more SSBs (41 %) than water (34 %), the former being the most consumed fluid. At other locations, adolescent boys also drink more SSBs (51 %) than either water (29 %) or milk and derivatives (10 %). Conclusion: the drinking habits of Spanish young populations are far removed from current recommendations because of a low fluid intake, specifically water, and a high proportion of SSB consumption in children and adolescents. Interventions to ensure that EFSA TFI recommendations are met are of special importance for children and adolescents, with - according to our results - a special focus on male adolescents.

INTRODUCCIÓN: Introducción: la ingesta total de líquidos insuficiente o poco saludable, especialmente en las primeras etapas de la vida, puede tener un impacto negativo sobre la salud. Objetivo: evaluar el patrón actual de consumo de líquidos en niños y adolescentes en España, incluyendo el número de veces y los lugares para beber, y comparar la ingesta total de líquidos con la ingesta adecuada establecida por la Agencia Europea de Seguridad Alimentaria (EFSA). Metodología: estudio transversal que evaluó la ingesta total de líquidos utilizando un registro validado de ingesta de líquidos de 7 días (Liq.in7). Se realizó entre abril y mayo de 2018, incluyendo una muestra de 146 niños de 4 a 9 años y adolescentes de 10 a 17 años españoles (63 % varones). Los padres detallaron dicha información en caso de que los niños fueran menores de 16 años. Resultados: una alta proporción de niños y adolescentes no cumplían con los valores de referencia de la EFSA para la ingesta de líquidos (73 % y 72 %, respectivamente). El 40 % de los niños y aproximadamente el 50 % de los adolescentes consumían al menos una porción (250 ml) de bebidas azucaradas por día, y el 20 % consumían una porción o menos de agua al día. Durante las comidas principales se consumía la mayor cantidad de líquidos tanto en los niños como en los adolescentes (representando el 50 % y el 54 % de la ingesta total de líquidos, respectivamente), principalmente agua (62 %). El consumo de los niños en el hogar (70 % de la ingesta total de líquidos) también consistía principalmente en agua (47 %). Del mismo modo, en la escuela, el agua contribuía a la mitad de la ingesta. Sin embargo, los adolescentes en el instituto bebían más bebidas azucaradas (41 %) que agua (34 %). En otros lugares, los adolescentes varones también bebían más bebidas azucaradas (51 %) que agua (29 %) o leche y derivados (10 %). Conclusión: de acuerdo con nuetros resultados, la población joven española no cumple las recomendaciones actuales tanto por presentar una baja ingesta total de líquidos como por realizar un alto consumo de bebidas azucaradas. Es importante que las intervenciones que intenten mejorar la ingesta de líquidos en los niños y adolescentes basen sus objetivos en alcanzar los valores de referencia de la EFSA con un enfoque especial, según nuestros resultados, consistente en mejorar los comportamientos de ingesta de líquidos en los adolescentes varones.

Hydration for health hypothesis: a narrative review of supporting evidence.

PURPOSE: An increasing body of evidence suggests that excreting a generous volume of diluted urine is associated with short- and long-term beneficial health effects, especially for kidney and metabolic function. However, water intake and hydration remain under-investigated and optimal hydration is poorly and inconsistently defined. This review tests the hypothesis that optimal chronic water intake positively impacts various aspects of health and proposes an evidence-based definition of optimal hydration. METHODS: Search strategy included PubMed and Google Scholar using relevant keywords for each health outcome, complemented by manual search of article reference lists and the expertise of relevant practitioners for each area studied. RESULTS: The available literature suggest the effects of increased water intake on health may be direct, due to increased urine flow or urine dilution, or indirect, mediated by a reduction in osmotically -stimulated vasopressin (AVP). Urine flow affects the formation of kidney stones and recurrence of urinary tract infection, while increased circulating AVP is implicated in metabolic disease, chronic kidney disease, and autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. CONCLUSION: In order to ensure optimal hydration, it is proposed that optimal total water intake should approach 2.5 to 3.5 L day-1 to allow for the daily excretion of 2 to 3 L of dilute (< 500 mOsm kg-1) urine. Simple urinary markers of hydration such as urine color or void frequency may be used to monitor and adjust intake.

Hydration in Children: What Do We Know and Why Does it Matter?

In children, maintaining adequate fluid intake and hydration is important for physiological reasons and for the adoption of healthy, sustainable drinking habits. In the Liq.In7 cross-sectional surveys involving 6,469 children (4-17 years) from 13 countries, 60% of children did not meet the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) adequate intake for water from fluids. Beyond fluid quantity, the quality of what children drink is important for health. In these surveys, the contribution of sugar-sweetened beverages and fruit juices to total fluid intake (TFI) in children exceeded that of water in 6 out of 13 countries. To assess the adequacy of children's fluid intake, urinary biomarkers of hydration such as urine osmolality, urine specific gravity, and urine color may be used. To date, while there are no widely accepted specific threshold values for urine concentration to define adequate hydration in children, the available literature suggests that many children have highly concentrated urine, indicating insufficient fluid intake. This is worrisome since studies have demonstrated a relationship between low fluid intake or insufficient hydration and cognitive performance in children. Furthermore, results of the Liq.In7 surveys showed that at school - where children spend a significant amount of time and require optimal cognitive performance - children drink only 14% of their TFI. Consequently, it is pertinent to better understand the barriers to drinking water at school and encourage the promotion of water intake through multicomponent interventions that combine educational, environmental, and behavioral aspects to support adequate hydration as well as optimal cognition in children.

Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women: Drinking for Two?

The primary aim of this cross-sectional survey was to assess the total fluid intake (TFI; sum of drinking water and all other fluids) and the intake of water and all other types of beverages in a sample of pregnant and breastfeeding women representative of Java-Island, Indonesia. Therefore, 299 pregnant and 296 breastfeeding women completed a 7-day fluid-specific record. A secondary aim was to estimate the total water intake (TWI; sum of water from fluids and food moisture), and one 24-h recall was performed to determine water intake from food moisture. The median TFI of pregnant and breastfeeding women were 2,250 (1,800-2,800) and 2,360 (1,954-2,968) mL/day, respectively. The largest contributor to TFI was water (72 and 77% for pregnant/breastfeeding women, respectively). Pregnant women to the extent of 42% and 54% of breastfeeding women did not reach the adequate intake (AI) of water from fluids. In pregnant and breastfeeding women, the median water intake from foods was 592 and 613 mL/day, representing 21 and 20% of TWI. Concluding that a high proportion of the pregnant and breastfeeding subjects did not reach the AI of water from fluid, it seems important to put in place actions such as providing education materials and ensuring access to safe water. Moreover, future surveys should dedicate attention to the assessment of fluid intake and hydration status among pregnant and breastfeeding women in other countries.

Fluid Intake of Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women in Indonesia: A Cross-Sectional Survey with a Seven-Day Fluid Specific Record.

During pregnancy and lactation, the adequate intake (AI) for total water intake is increased. This cross-sectional survey aimed to assess Total Fluid Intake (TFI; sum of drinking water and all other fluids) of 300 pregnant and 300 breastfeeding women in Indonesia. A seven-day fluid specific record was used to assess TFI. Mean TFI of pregnant and breastfeeding women were 2332 ± 746 mL/day and 2525 ± 843 mL/day, respectively. No significant difference in TFI between pregnancy trimesters was observed, while TFI of women breastfeeding for 12-24 months postpartum (2427 ± 955 mL/day) was lower than that of the two other groups (0-5 months: 2607 ± 754 mL/day; 6-11 months: 2538 ± 807 mL/day, respectively). Forty-two and 54% of the pregnant and breastfeeding subjects, respectively, did not reach the AI of water from fluids. These AI were actually known by only 14% and 23% of the pregnant and breastfeeding subjects. However, having the knowledge about the AI did not increase the odds of reaching the AI. Concluding that a high proportion of the pregnant and breastfeeding subjects did not reach the AI of water from fluid, it seems pertinent to further assess the fluid intake, as well as their hydration status, in other countries.

Contribution of Water from Food and Fluids to Total Water Intake: Analysis of a French and UK Population Surveys.

Little has been published on the contribution of food moisture (FM) to total water intake (TWI); therefore, the European Food Safety Authority assumed FM to contribute 20%-30% to TWI. The aim of the present analysis was to estimate and compare TWI, the percentage of water from FM and from fluids in population samples of France and UK. Data from 2 national nutrition surveys (Enquête Comportements et Consommations Alimentaires en France (CCAF) 2013 and the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) 2008/2009-2011/2012) were analyzed for TWI and the contribution of water from FM and fluids. Children and adults TWI were significantly lower in France than in the UK. The contribution of water from foods was lower in the UK than in France (27% vs. 36%). As TWI increased, the proportion of water from fluids increased, suggesting that low drinkers did not compensate by increasing intake of water-rich foods. In addition, 80%-90% of the variance in TWI was explained by differences in water intake from fluids. More data on the contribution of FM to TWI is needed to develop more robust dietary recommendations on TWI and guidance on fluid intake for the general public.